Thursday, October 31, 2019

Globalization and Its Biggest Winners and Losers Essay

Globalization and Its Biggest Winners and Losers - Essay Example Globalization is characterized by many factors including increased international trade, multinational companies whose activities are based in several nations, great dependence on the global economy and free movement of capital goods and services. Although associated with many economic benefits to the participating nations, research has indicated that some nations fail to enjoy the benefits anticipated from globalization (Jacobs and Michael, 2003). The Biggest Winners and Losers in a Globalized World Several years of globalization efforts witnessed have led to an imbalanced economic scenario where economists have unanimously come into a consensus that globalization only favours some nations. A critical examination and comparison of both developed and undeveloped nations is a clear revelation of this reality (Bhagwati, 2004). Because of this imbalance, developed nations have emerged out as the biggest winners in a globalised world. These developed nations include America, china Canada and other nations in Europe and some parts of Asia. Undeveloped nations are mainly found in Africa and some parts of South America. Developed nation’s economies are largely industrially driven as opposed to undeveloped nations who mostly rely on agriculture as their main economic drive. The disparities evident in export levels between developed and undeveloped nations is a typical example how developed nations gain in a globalized economy as opposed to their undeveloped counterparts. A report published by an independent group of scholars and economic experts focusing on living standards in poor countries indicated living standard were worse than it was a decade ago. According to this report a fifth of the world’s richest nations were found to control 82 percent of the world export market. Direct investment is highly dominated by people from the richest with high figures of 68 percent. While majority of populations in poor countries still live below poverty levels chara cterized by widespread unemployment, a big population in developed nations are employed and they live above poverty levels (George, 2007). Globalization has led to opening up of market base, which has in turn triggered increased industrial production of various commodities in order to cater for the increased customer needs. This has seen a rapid increase of exports from developed to undeveloped nations. As a result, industrial sector in developed nations experiences a growth due to ever-growing globalization. Growth of industrial sector avails several benefits in developed nations. It facilitates growth of other sectors such as education and infrastructure further contributing to economic growth. Contrary to less developed nations, the rate of unemployment is much lower in developed nations due to ever-growing industrial sector. The level of innovativeness is also greatly supplemented by the wide variety of industries present in these nations (Roy, 2005). Over dependence of undevelo ped nations for various products from their developed counterparts has led to emergence of market monopolies, which developed nations use for their own economic gain. There has been a rise in number on international companies originating from the rich nations and expanding their market base to the less developed nations. A typical example can be drawn from china, which has expanded its market base in African countries (Scholte, 2000). The country strategically produces low quality goods, which are affordable in the African market. Because of economic status of African market, such substandard goods often remain more popular as opposed to genuine but more expensive goods. The benefits leapt through this strategy are immeasurable and have played a crucial in

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

The use of progress monitoring can help provide educators with a Essay - 1

The use of progress monitoring can help provide educators with a valuable tool to improve their own teaching - Essay Example remise of the book is that moral propensities and principles are the end-result of forces of culture, laws of nature, and the contingencies of history (Shermer, 18). The author presents a contention that believers do not need to be alienated. Since the general acceptance for the existence of God makes it acceptable for one to believe that God created and laws of nature to inculcate within human beings a moral sense. Furthermore, He also inculcated moral principles within human cultures. Without religion, it would be hard to achieve morality. This remains the basic premise from which the true definition of religion can be developed, and it serves as the principal target of Shermer in his book. At the fundamental of Shermer’s argument regarding the evolution of morality, is the denotation and actual sense of religion. Shermer describes religion as a social institution that progressed as a fundamental mechanism of human philosophy (Shermer 7). The importance of the origin of reli gion was to create and promote myths with a view of encouraging cooperation and altruism. Furthermore, religion encompasses the discouragement of competitiveness and selfishness. Thus, the real meaning of religion is the revelation of the level of obligation for members of the community to unite and return goodness. Shermer poses the question; can individuals lead moral lives in the absence of recourse to a transcendent being that might or might not exist? In his query, he recognize the immediate and historic function of religious practice in inculcating moral values. He argues that the true meaning of religion enable one to develop moral character while observing ethical way of life. The author creates the most precise definition of religion. He argues that it is important to ask the following question: can individuals construct an ethical system in the absence of religion? The answer the Shermer proposes appears to be affirmative on both counts. He does not belittle or disregard human

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Logistics management plays a major role in determining overall success of companies

Logistics management plays a major role in determining overall success of companies Supply chain management Logistics management is an integrating function which coordinates and optimizes all logistics activities, as well as integrates logistics activities with other functions, including marketing, sales, manufacturing, finance, and information technology.(Jonsson, 2008, p 4) Logistics Management or Supply Chain Solutions, both play a major role in determining the overall success of a company. Major consequences are found in supply chain if there is even small variance in inventory; to overcome such consequences an effective logistics is necessary for any organisation. Logistics management involves high level of competences and expert knowledge. Managing from raw material to final stage at right place on right time is handled by logistics management. To leverage opportunity in emerging markets, companies are focusing on consolidating and aligning their supply chain management infrastructure, processes and procedures to reduce costs and improve efficiency. A Supply chain consists of the series of activities and organisations that materials move through on their journey from initial suppliers to final customers. Every product has its own unique supply chain and these can be both long and complicated. (Waters; 2003; p.7) There is a series of steps involved from the origin of services or product and its consumption. The steps involved in this are known as supply chains. The report will provide operations of McDonalds in UK and will emphasis on its supply chain management. Company Background and Introduction: McDonalds Corporation is the worlds leading food service organization. The corporation started out as a small drive-through in 1948 by two brothers, Dick and Mac McDonald. In addition, McDonalds opens a new restaurant every three hours. Big Mac is the biggest attraction and backbone of the corporation. Moreover, McDonalds maintains its competitive advantage by constantly creating new items to add onto its menu. This shows us that McDonalds practices an analyzer type of strategy, introducing new items and defending its existing ones. McDonalds opened its first UK restaurant October 1974. In December 2004, there were over 1330 McDonalds restaurants operating in the UK. Around 60% of these are owned and operated by the company. The remainders are operated by franchisees. Each McDonalds restaurant is structured as an independent business, with restaurant management responsible for accounting, operations, inventory control, community relations, training and human resources. Read more: http://www.thetimes100.co.uk/case-studyrecruiting-selecting-training-for-success28-194-1.php#ixzz15v72oKUJ Supply chain management strategy: The complete SCP model http://www.tompkinsinc.com/publications/competitive_edge/articles/11-08-supply_chain_partnerships.asp Supply chain management encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion and all logistics management activities. Companies adopt supply chain management to ensure that supply chain is operating efficiently and providing high level of customer satisfaction with low cost. SCM integrates the demand and supply management within and across companies. (Jonsson; 2008; p .5) The quick-service-restaurant (QSR) giant has built an entire process over the years for managing a sophisticated delivery system, starting on the live-animal production side and running all along the supply chain until products reach their final destination as McDonalds customers favourite. Nature and Operation of Organisation: McDonalds Corporation is the world largest chain of fast food restaurant, serving more that 58millions customer every day. A McDonalds restaurant is operated by either franchisee or the corporate itself. The corporation revenue generates from rent, royalties and fees paid by franchisees and also from sales in company operated McDonalds. The menu is consists hamburgers , cheeseburgers , chicken and fish products , French fries , breakfast menu , soft drinks ,shakes and desserts. (McDonalds Website n.d.) Logistics Service Providers: Many organisations do not perform many of their own logistics activities. They arrange logistics service providers to take advantage of efficient and experienced specialists to look after the transport, while the organisation can concentrate on its core operations. An organisation mainly forms a partnership with other company to look after warehousing, purchase of material, material handling and many of the other functions of logistics. When one company uses other companies to run its logistics are known as third party or 3PL or contract logistics. For McDonalds Key stone distribution works as a 3PL. (Waters; 2003; p.90) Keystone Distribution UK is a subsidiary of Keystone Foods LLC, which provides food manufacturing and distribution services to quite a large amount of customers in America, Asia, and Europe. Keystone distribution was formed in 1977 in partnership with McDonalds for its UK baker of hamburger bun and since then company is progressing along with McDonalds. Keystone distributor has been efficiently supplying everything to its existing client need to run the business successfully. Keystones manages a large part of McDonalds UK supply chain and replenishing its 1200 UK stores from mops and ketchup to the essential ambient , fresh , frozen foods that makes up the McDonalds menu. (Logistic Business IT Website; 09.Nov.2009) Structure of Supply Chain: Structuring the supply chain requires an understanding of the demand patterns, service level requirements, distance considerations, cost elements and other related factors. (Rock ford Consulting Website N.D.) Moving of material inward is upstream and outward is downward. The upward activities are divided into tiers of suppliers. A supplier that sends materials directly to the operations is first tier supplier; one that send materials to a first tier supplier is a second tier supplier; one that sends material to a second tier supplier is a third tier supplier and so on to the original source. Customers are also divided into tier. One that gets product directly from the operations is first tier customer and so on to final customers. (Waters; 2003; p.8) http://www.gmtonline.com.my/solutions/B2B/pic/rosett1.jpg http://www.gmtonline.com.my/solutions/B2B/rosettanet_b2b_supply_chain.asp McDonalds deals with different suppliers for its different products and ultimately which aims to provide customers great taste and on affordable price. McDonalds has been working in partnership with household brand such as with Coca cola, Tropicana and Buxton who act as second tier supplier because they supply its products to keystone distribution who works for McDonalds as first tier supplier. Also there are number of other suppliers such as Sun Valley and Moy Park who supply McDonalds with Chicken product all these works as second tier supplier for McDonalds. Also Ecsa, the makers of the beef patties who are key for success of supply chain also supplies its product to McDonalds first tier supplier (Keystone Distributors). All the different supplier deals with Keystone Distributor, who then sends material directly to McDonalds to run the business smoothly by providing on affordable prices, delivering products on time and helps in outward movement of orders and receiving payments fro m customers. Overall, keystone is a important player in structure of supply chain for making upward and downward activity successful. (Make up your own mind Website; March 2009) Managing the supply chain: As the McDonalds UK distributor, its the responsibility of keystone to provide the perfect service and product every time they need and also to coordinate the requirement of hundreds of McDonalds around UK. They work along the supply chain ensuring the quality and reliability is kept while passing delivery to restaurant. In order to achieve this Keystone uses the latest technology and software to work closely with McDonalds marketing and business plan. Keystones ensures managing peak and troughs as they come along for keeping smooth supply chain and ensures there are no out of stocks. On an average Keystone carries five days inventory in their store and delivers three to four times per week inventory in each restaurant. To meet that delivery they have 300 vehicles, tractors and trailers which help them to run these logistic operations within UK and including the Isle of Man and channels Island by delivering around one million cases each week. Their biggest challenge is ensure those v ehicles arrive at the restaurants on time and containing everything being ordered and meeting 100 percent quality of product including frozen, chilled or dry. (Business Review Europe website 10th.July.2010) Inventory Control at McDonalds: McDonalds introduced in 2004 a central stock management function known as Restaurant supply Planning Department. The team build these factors into the new planning and forecasting system called Manugistics which forecast likely demand of finished menu items such as Big Macs. McDonalds deals in three types of stock like every business has: Raw Material: These ingredients go into producing finished product. They are buns, beef patties, paper cups and packaging in case of McDonalds. They are delivered three and five times a week. There are three sections of raw material Frozen, chilled, ambient which arrive together in one lorry so that each product can be stored at their suitable temperature. Work-in-progress: The process of being made into finished product is referring to as Work-in-progress. A Big Mac consists of a bun, two beef patties, lettuce, cheese, pickles, onions, sauce and a small amount of seasoning. The restaurant waits until the order is placed so that Big Macs stays hot and fresh when served. Finished Stock: The product ready for immediate sale to customer are known as finished products. At lunch time and busy evening hours restaurant will have range of Big Macs and chickens ready for sale to customers. First-in-first-out method is used to handle all stock whether raw material, work-in-progress, or finished product, in order to minimise waste and also it helps in providing fresh food at all time to each and every customer. Inventory Management: The process of making sure there is enough stock at all times to meet customer demand whilst minimising expensive waste is known as stock management. High cost is involved in holding too much stock so McDonalds uses lean stock control method to save money. Inventory ordering manager work with the new stock control system, Manugistics, to ensure sufficient raw stock is available. This helps restaurant to produce the meals required according to the forecasted demand. Forecast is done on the basis of restaurant historic product-mix data from last year, store-specific and national causal factors such as national promotions and school holidays, information from store managers about factors that might affect demand .e.g. road closure or local events and new promotions. Restaurant manager need to ensure that the data they enter into the system is as accurate possible. Every day restaurant manager record opening and closing stock of key food items. Other items are recorded weekly and monthly basis. The store computers system identifies any stock count deviations from last stock count so it gives opportunity to manager to investigate missing product. For example, the manager may have missed off a box of regular meat while counting them earlier on the shift. Ordering Process: The ordering process involves holding a small buffer stock. This is extra amount of inventory held to meet any unexpected higher demand. Inventory manager uses a web based communication software called Weblog to view and amend store order proposals. Each time of ordering weblog creates a proposed order to analyse and amend if necessary. Weblog helps managers to view what quantity have been ordered, how much is the current stock level and how much stock is due to be delivered at a particular time. The system automatically generates a delivery note that gives the exact quantities and descriptions of the delivery. The manager has to click confirm on weblog when they finishes selecting amount of inventory they needed to use. Serving Customer: Competition and increasing consumer preference for variety and healthier food makes McDonalds to expand the range of menu. Customers entering into McDonalds are divided into those who know about menu and those who are new and coming to restaurant first time and are not familiar with menu. Apart from selling food items by itself McDonalds also sell Extra Value meals which consist of a burger, fries and a drink. When customers reaches the front counter and place their order, the till person applies two selling technique. The selling up technique where order is changed by asking customer by suggesting larger portion and also by adding extra item such as drink and another one is suggestive selling technique where any item extra is being asked to sell each and every customer. For example if customers comes and buys two three adults meal and one two children meal and they are being asked if they wanted to buy two apple pies for  £1.50. The till person punches the order on to their till. There are some standard food items which are meant to be held in production bin, the counter person pick the food what is being ordered in a specific sequence which involves cold drinks first, and then hot drinks second, then fries and at last burgers. If a particular food item is not available in the production bin, then the counter person calls the order to the production person who then calls the food order to the grill area. Certain food products in slack period are cooked to order due to their less demand and to avoid waste. When the order in not ready the till person ask the first customer to pay and wait aside if its take away order and if its eat in they ask customer to take a sit and order will be brought to your table, and start dealing with the next person in the line. Every time till person completes the order there is a button served which is to be punched in order to let computer know that the order is finished. As if it not done the computer will not allow taking eleventh order. So every time order is done its necessary to serve it off. Performance Improvement: Keystone manages the supply chain to ensure that there is always sufficient stock to fulfill demand when orders are received. The companys integrated order and management system prints colour coded descriptive picking labels which aid restaurants in stock rotation. Orders are then collated on to a purpose built trailer designed for the simultaneous delivery of frozen, chilled and ambient product stored at appropriate temperatures. This ensures that the restaurants complete order is supplied in one delivery, whilst maintaining the product in perfect condition. This process works extremely well, but there is always room to improve processes. Keystone is working on an initiative that it hopes will further advance the efficiency of the companys operations. Were reviewing the whole of the delivery schedule as well as the entire delivery system in conjunction with McDonalds to try and find a more cost effective and equally eco-friendly delivery schedule with them, says Assal. Thats a major project for us at the moment and were working on that in detail. That will be rolled out in the coming months and it will produce a major cost benefit to the whole McDonalds supply chain. Its also important for Keystones environmental policy to chime with McDonalds high profile efforts in this area. All packaging within our distribution centres, both cardboard and plastics, is collected and recycled we recycle everything from office stationery down to warehouse packaging. At present, we run all our vehicles on diesel that contains five percent bio-diesel. But were working on a project to use 100 percent bio-diesel in all our vehicles by the end of this year, instead of fossil fuel diesel. We believe that will have a neutral effect on the business; it will neither be a cost benefit or a cost saving. We also have a number of initiatives light sensitive switches, low consumption bulbs in our warehouses. We try to play our part and do what we can to reduce our carbon footprint. Its policies like these that make Keystone a truly progressive company, and one that is moving with the times, just as McDonalds updates its operations for a changing fast service industry. http://www.fin.gov.on.ca/en/budget/ontariobudgets/2004/images/papere2.gif http://www.fin.gov.on.ca/en/budget/ontariobudgets/2004/papere.html http://lh4.ggpht.com/_k0ovfY0NP70/TGAHWC5Pc-I/AAAAAAAABdY/3kLGhdxvHNk/s800/mcdonalds.PNG http://iamjamesward.wordpress.com/2010/08/09/there-is-only-one/ The diagram below shows the forward flow of materials from upstream to downstream, the bidirectional flow of information, and the movement of money from downstream to upstream. http://www.vivaceproject.com/showcase_html/supply%20chain%20simulation/introduction%20to%20supply%20chain_image1.jpg Flows in the supply chain (from Spekman et al [1998]) http://www.vivaceproject.com/showcase_html/supply%20chain%20simulation/introduction%20to%20supply%20chain.htm It is easy to see that these factors are highly variable in nature and this variability needs to be considered during the supply chain analysis process. Moreover, the interplay of these complex considerations could have a significant bearing on the outcome of the supply chain analysis process. http://rockfordconsulting.com/supply-chain-management.htm

Friday, October 25, 2019

Dimensional Argument Against the Snowball Earth Hypothesis :: essays research papers

A most recent inquiry into climatic change during the ice age and it's possibility of reoccurring is the Snowball Earth Hypothesis advanced by Paul Hoffman of Harvard University. Snowball Earth Suggest that before the Ice age, continents ice free at the poles enhanced the reabsorption of carbon dioxide through erosion of silicate minerals, reducing the greenhouse effect making the earth colder until it reached a runaway point. This effect is Hoffman calls albedo, when the atmosphere becomes so cold it can never warm up again. This is what occurred during the ice age, until volcano activity saturated the atmosphere with carbon dioxide to a point that it trapped radiation from the Sun and rewarmed the climate causing glacial thaw. Evidence of this event is cap carbonates that show relative dating at the ice age, found in abundance in several different world regions, at certain levels the cap carbonates would indicate if carbon dioxide was emitted into the atmosphere, by showing carbon levels that would demonstrate how much photosynthesis was occurring. Iron rich rock deposits indicate that absents of oxcidation would mean the atmosphere contain no oxygen, without oxygen their is no life, therefore other evidence of total extinction. So experts dispute the oceans were encased beneath a kilometer thick sheet of ice sheet, or that all life became extinct. The evidence of the Snowball effect is challenged that levels of carbon had not reached those required to satisfy the model and that alternative models are possible to explain the arrival and conclusion of the ice age. Iron had not oxidized because the glacials prevented contact with the atmosphere that would of subjected these rocks to mechanical weathering. The Snowball Earth Hypothesis bases its theory on an invalid model of earth at that time. Ancient earth of the Proterozoic 750 million years ago existed in a separate dimension then what the model is based upon. There wasn't much of an ocean completely beneath a glacial sheet of ice a kilometer thick. The plate tectonic model of pangaea locates it with Antarctica, this shifts the planetary land of the continents to one hemisphere and connects it with already glacial covered Antarctica. So rather than ice on the ocean around the Antarctica, the glaciation would be linked on pangaea surface; wouldn't this detrital effect sort of conduct the refrigeration and branch out the glacial even further into the continent, instead of a lack of CO2, temperature variation occurs from extended glacial mass that colds everything within reach of its frost thermal gradient, slightly different sort of albedo than Snowball Earth describes.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Dramatic Impact in Act 3 of The Crucible Essay

There are many different ways/techniques in which miller creates dramatic impact in act 3. It all starts in the beginning when the play is set off-stage, ‘The room is empty’, which creates an air of mystery and make people hear and listen hard to what is going on. It also makes the audience/reader wonder who the new voices are (Hathorne and Danforth). Then when Giles roars into the court, ‘I have evidence for the court’, the audience who are so concentrated on hearing will immediately jolt and get a fright from the noise and there starts the drama. The dramatic structure of this act plays a key role in the dramatic impact/tension of the act. It starts off with a bang, then goes down in tension, then rises to another climax, continuously. An example of this is: in the beginning Giles roars into court, then this is questioning and explaining, ‘Your Excellency, I only said she were readin’ books†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ which lowers the tension then Fransis shws his deposition and the tension and expectation rises again. Most of the act rises and falls in this manner. This technique emphasizes the dramatic points in the play because it sort of isolates them between parts that aren’t so dramatic. All the little high drama points in the act are leading to the main one in the end. The 3 depositions, Nurse’s, Giles’s and Mary’s, create huge drama in the way that they are presented and out hopes are raises that the court will see justice and then turned down by the court for a small reason. For example: Giles deposition, which stated that Putnam was out for land, was turned down because he wouldn’t give the name of the witness, ‘Why, I-I can not give you his name’. This raising of our hopes then destroying them, continuously, mirrors the impact of the structure of the act. The mention and showing of each deposition creates high drama/tension and as each deposition is destroyed, the dram and our hopes go down. Another dramatic point in this act, of course, is the girls. When they start seeing â€Å"spirits†, ‘A wind, a cold wind, has come’ the tension is raised because the audience knows they are lying but doesn’t know if the court will believe it. They claim that Mary is threatening them with her spirit, ‘Why do you come yellow bird?’ and this threatens Proctor and Mary’s deposition. While the girls are constantly â€Å"seeing spirits† and â€Å"chanting†, they are luring Mary back into their grasp and Proctor notices this, ‘with a hysterical cry Mary Warren starts to run. Proctor catches her’ and this prompts a huge dramatic part in the act: Proctors confession. Knowing Proctors character as a law obeying man with a good reputation and wanting to keep it, this confession shocks the audience and is a big dramatic high. The beginning of the confession is the main shocker to the audience and the court, ‘How do you call Heaven! Whore! Whore!’. When the court decides to look further into Proctors claim of adultery, they call in Elizabeth, who Proctor says never lies. When she lies, presumably for the first time, this is another high point in the act. She, and the audience, realizes what she has done and everyone gets scared and fears the worst. The end is the most dramatic part of the play because Proctor says that he and Danforth are Evil, ‘I see his filthy face! And it is my face, and yours, Danforth’ and this surly means (to the audience) Proctor will be charged heavily. With the hero in jail, what is left for the rest of Salem? This is what the audience will ask themselves. Another part at the end of the act which shows drama is when Hale denounces the court because, as the main priest and witchcraft expert in this ‘trail’ he is supposed to be righteous and tells us that Hale is someone who now really believes the girls are lying. Not only the content of the act but also Millers development and introduction of the characters create dramatic impact. Two main once stand out as very dramatic are Danforth and Hale. The introduction of Danforth in this act, I would consider, is a dramatic point because he is quite stern and the audience no idea what to expect from him. Will he be fair? Will he side with Abigail? The audience is faced with a mystery. All the other characters have been mentioned before and we have an idea of who they are and what to expect from them. With Danforth, especially him being in a position of extreme power, it is dramatic that we don’t know what he is like. In the beginning of the play, we understood that Hale was a self important man who wanted to seem the hero and wasn’t afraid to cry witchery on someone. During this act, he is defensive and doesn’t exactly believe in all the ‘witches’. It is al if he thinks he has caused all this and wants to fix it. ‘Is every defense an attack upon the court?’, ‘Excellency, a moment. I think this goes to the heart of the matter’. He is starting to side more with Proctor in believing this is all the girls and they may have caused this. It his the last quote of Proctors sums up what is going on in act 3 and why it is so dramatic: ‘You are pulling Heaven down and raising up a whore!’. We, as the audience, know things the characters don’t (dramatic irony) and this is a great example. We know the girls are lying, but the court and many people don’t, they believe the ‘whore’ and not ‘heaven’ (the whore being Abigail and Heaven being truth and righteousness).

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Discuss – Whether or not we should use animals

The use of animals for medical research is a debatable issue with some claiming that for the benefit of science, medical research needs animals and testing on animals is a necessity for the progress of science. Others argue that it is unethical to use animals and any other form of life as some of this research would involve killing of the animals and this is completely unacceptable even for the sake of progress of science. Other alternative methods to killing and using animals should be used for research and study and animals should not be directly used, abused and killed. In fact people advocating protection of wild life and related policies are against the capture and indiscriminate use of nature’s resources even if it is in the grab of betterment for humanity.   This essay deals with both sides of the debate showing the advantages and disadvantages of using animals for testing for betterment and advancement of medical research.Part IWhy animal testing is plausible and can be usedIn most cases, most pharmaceutical companies try new drugs on animals first and also try new chemicals or use animal anatomy to understand human anatomy. Many people believe that medical research as practised by big pharmaceutical companies use animals unethically for business gains and profits. The medical companies have their own research and development units where new drugs are initially tested on animals, especially rats or guineapigs and the effects of these drugs are then generalized on to humans a many clinical symptoms of animals are similar to what is expected in humans.Thus if new drugs are not effective or have adverse impact on animals, the same could be presumed in case of humans for the same drug. This generalization factor is important as companies and scientists claim that they use animals to understand the effects of drug on humans or simply to understand the structure and functions of human by studying animals as it would not be possible to study humans an d their body parts directly and it would also be completely wrong to apply new drugs or use new medicines for illnesses on humans directly without knowing what effects these would have on the body.In fact although before releasing a new drug in the market, companies conduct clinical trials on volunteers after testing these on animals and volunteers get paid for this. Yet the ethical aspect of this, or trying new drugs on humans is again debated but then this is the way medical research has to work otherwise new drugs will not be tested. It is again controversial whether new drugs could be tested artificially say with technical or robotic manipulation and whether drugs could be used on humans directly without testing on animals. How ethical would that be and thus there are two points here that touches on ethical issues.In the first case, animal testing would be unethical and yet testing medicines directly on humans without testing on humans would again be unethical as adverse consequ ences can directly affect human volunteers. For this reason it is almost necessary to test new drugs on animals first before testing them on humans as long as there is no suffering to animals and as long as there is some general research progress expected from such tests.Most people consider animal testing acceptable within limits. In one study by Fenwick and Fraser (2005), drug regulatory reviewers and pharmaceutical industry experts and scientists were interviewed to explore different perspectives on obstacles and opportunities of replacement, refinement and reduction or the three Rs in drug research and development (Fenwick and Fraser, 2005). The study found that most scientists and researcher generally tend to support the use of animals in medical research and suggested that the level of animal use is acceptable in pharmaceutical industry and replacing the use of animals would not be a feasible idea.Part II –Why animal testing is unethical and should not be usedIn the stu dy above by Fenwick and Fraser (2005) the three Rs have been considered as necessary in changing animal research. However this could be implausible as there are obstacles to applying the replacement or refinement of animal testing as there is a lack of non-animal alternatives and other alternatives may not fulfill the needs for statistical validity and industry. Also regulators could depart from certain patterns of animal use and in some cases commercial objectives are more important than following the three Rs. Less animal-testing could also jeopardize human safety according to some.However three Rs with replacement and refinement in testing could mean genetically modified animals and better animal models with drug use on gene actions and changes. The re-use of animals and using sufficient number of animals are also some of the issues. In some cases regulatory studies are combined so that animal data is minimized yet fulfill regulatory requirements.Fenwick and Fraser (2005) suggest ed that following the three Rs would be in accordance with industry priorities and validation of alternative methods would also be necessary. Greater consensus would be required in certain areas of disagreement related to animal testing according to the authors and these are issues related to death and re-use of animals and also whether pilot studies and alternative methods would contribute to reduction in the number of animals (Fenwick and Frazer, 2005).Thus animal use and testing is consider unethical due to matters related to death and reuse of animals and the use of too many animals could also be reduced with better more advanced tests that would require fewer samples and could be done more efficiently.Part III –Summary of both the viewsThus as seen, there are many reasons for which animal testing could be useful or even unethical. Death of animals would be suggesting against it and medial progress and usefulness for human drugs would be the strong points. It is important to develop alternative methods of testing that could replace the use of animals in medical research and according to Wilcox (1998), the US Food and Drug Administration or FDA is committed to facilitating the development and validation of new testing methods that could reduce or minimize the use of animals. The international science community has been challenged to develop and discover methods that could obviate the need for animals for extrapolation to human situations and conditions in case of pharmaceutical research.The appropriate mechanisms of toxicity and hazard and safety decisions should be known and the FDA is focused on protecting public health by successfully integrating science and social causes. The agency’s broad regulatory responsibilities relate to understanding the use of vaccines, drugs, blood supply and medical devices as also veterinary drugs and animal feed. The FDA has been in regulating the principles and alternatives of animal testing in medical resear ch.The FDA tries to identify the gaps between industry and academia especially in terms of communication or data gaps and methods gaps and supports in developing new research data and methods to find alternative methods of testing for drugs aiding in the regulatory decision making process. Wilcox (1998) suggests that a new paradigm introducing new and validated testing methods for the FDA scientists is emerging and this is responsible for application and acceptance of regulations in testing.A study by Williams et al (2007) investigated the use and impact of animal testing for research and teaching purposes and the awareness of these regulations among public and the opinions related to this. In a study by Williams et al, an independent telephone study was conducted to collect information on awareness and interest in the use of animal testing for medical research and whether individuals have confidence in such regulations and principles.The study obtained data from 750 individuals in NZ and 33% of the respondents expressed interest in the issue with 39% interested in animal testing for research and 21% showed interest for teaching purposes. Most respondents between 68%-72% suggested that animal testing would be acceptable if there is no unnecessary suffering to the animal and that regulated within the principles of medical research.However most people felt that animal research would be completely justified in case of research on life threatening and debilitating illnesses such as cancer and would also be justified when testing cosmetics and products that can do little or no harm to the animals.   8% of the respondents knew something about regulations dealing with animal testing in medical research.Williams et al (2007) thus suggested from the study that majority of the individuals were not interested in the issue although most who did accepted that animal testing is completely acceptable as long as there is no unnecessary suffering or in case of minimal advers ity or in case of medicines for life threatening illness. Thus there may be certain social opinions on the use of such drug trials on animals considering the seriousness of the research and the results expected.BibliographyAndreas-Holger MaehleGeneral Conclusions: Experimental Pharmacology and Therapeutic InnovationClio Medica/The Wellcome Series in the History of Medicine, â€Å"Drugs on Trial† by A-H. 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